Objectives
By the end of this module you will be able to:
- identify some models of the church
- explain the meaning of the four notes or marks of the church
- articulate the eschatological nature of the church
- describe the roles of the members of the hierarchy of the church
Introduction to Module 5
As one can see from the objectives this model continues the discussion of the theology of the Church. It does so with reference to: models, notes or marks, eschatology and hierarchy. The first two points are dealt with in the three readings. The other two will be covered in these notes. The latter will both be dealt with along the lines of the Vatican II document on the Church, Lumen Gentium.
The eschatological nature of the church.
What does this mean? The word comes from the Greek, "eschaton" meaning last thing. So it means that the church is directed to the final times, the end of the world, when its role will be over. It has its eyes, so to speak, on the end times. But that does not mean that the church is not interested in what is happening here and now nor that it is not interested in social justice and improving living conditions (cf. Module 9 on Social Justice) .
A chapter is devoted to this topic in Lumen Gentium. The full title of this chapter is : The Eschatological Nature of the Pilgrim Church and Her Union with the Heavenly Church. What does this chapter have to say about the eschatological nature of the church? The chapter makes use of many New Testament images and metaphors to talk about the end times and the nature of the church. It also restates traditional teaching regarding the invocation of saints, the veneration of sacred images, and prayers for the souls in purgatory. This chapter says it endorses the decrees on these matters as stated or re-stated by the Second Council of Nicea, the Council of Florence and of the Council of Trent.
So what are some of the thoughts of this chapter? Let us summarize them now. The church only attains its full glory in heaven when all humans beings and the world will be perfectly re-established in Christ. This restoration has already begun here on earth and is carried forward in the Holy Spirit. The church is called a pilgrim church because it is on its way towards heaven. In the meantime is takes on the appearance of this world through its appearance as an institution and has sacraments which use the things of this world.
While we are on this pilgrimage we must stand on guard against all kinds of enemies, living in hope that we will be invited into the heavenly kingdom. The sufferings of this world are not worthy of being compared with the reward to come in the next life.
There is an allusion to purgatory in this chapter. It speaks of those members who are exiles on earth, others who see God clearly, and the third group who are those who have finished this life and are being purified. There is also a reference to the "communion of saints" in heaven. These saints are able to intercede for those still on earth "through Him, in Him and with Him".
The link with the dead has been part of the Christian tradition from the beginning. It is beneficial to pray for the dead. It is also beneficial to pray to the saints, and Blessed Virgin, that they may intercede for those on earth. The companionship of the saints also joins us to Christ from whom all grace comes. Traditionally all those in heaven were referred to as the church "triumphant", those on earth as the church "militant", and finally those in purgatory as the "suffering" Church.
The whole church joins in prayers of praise especially seen in the Eucharistic prayer when its members are joined with the worshipping church in heaven as they venerate the memory of the Mary, of Joseph, and the blessed apostles and martyrs, and of all the saints.
(2) The Church is hierarchical by nature.
What is meant by hierarchy? A standard dictionary will tell us that hierarchy is any graded organization. That means an organization where there is inequality in some sense, and some have responsibility over matters which others do not have, e.g., there are middle managers, and general mangers and chief executives, etc, each with their own responsibilities. A triangle suggests the kind of organization we are talking about with the person with most power at the top of the triangle.
Is it possible to have an organization without a hierarchy? I don’t think so although a church like the Quakers comes close to it. While we are dealing with human institutions is seems inevitable, and indeed necessary to have some kind of hierarchy, however simple, if the organization is to function. A total absence of hierarchy could well lead to chaos. Admittedly not all hierarchies are simple; some organizations have layer upon layer of managers.
The word "hierarchy" is usually associated with a church organization. The Catholic Church for example, has a hierarchy whose levels are from the top down: pope, bishops, priests, laity. Other Christian churches also have hierarchies although they are different, e.g., pastors, moderators, synods, general assemblies.
To say the church is hierarchical is only one way of looking at the church. When people say the church is too hierarchical they may well mean that the hierarchical model predominates, but it does not have to. Indeed Vatican II put forward "the People of God" as its preferred model, not the hierarchical model. However that does not mean that the Church is no longer hierarchical!
Chapter III of Lumen Gentium is entitled: "The Hierarchical Structure of the Church, with Special Reference to the Episcopate". Vatican I in 1870, paid special attention to the papacy and did not have time to devote to the episcopacy and the priesthood because of the fall of Rome to Garibaldi. Vatican II concentrated on the role of bishops, although there was a separate document on priests, Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests.
The main emphasis that comes through is that the bishops collectively and with the bishop of Rome, and never without him, are the main teaching body of the Church. Their role is to preach the Gospel, teach the doctrine and see that the sacraments are celebrated. They are the leaders of the local churches and collectively represent the teaching body of the universal Church. Each bishop governs his local church and together with the pope they govern the universal Church. This ideal of all the bishops governing together with the pope is known as collegiality. After Vatican II, regular synods were instituted to give practical expression to this collegiality.
The hierarchy is seen in the framework of ministries exercised for the good of the whole Church. They are servants of their brethren. Bishops, the successors to the apostles, are shepherds for their flocks. The role of the pope as successor to Peter, is to unite members of the Church in faith and fellowship.
The authority of bishops is traced back to the apostles who were sent by Christ to preach the kingdom of God to Israel and then to all peoples. Peter was appointed as leader of the apostles. As the task of the church continues until the end of time, the apostles and their successors in turn appoint others, by the laying on of hands (I Tim 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6-7) to carry on the task. Thus the authority of bishops goes back to Christ. Today to be part of the episcopal body (group of bishops) in the Catholic Church, one must be sacramentally consecrated as bishop (laying on of hands) and be in communion (united) with the head (pope) and members of the body.
Bishops are authentic teachers endowed with the authority of Christ to teach in matters of faith and morals and their teaching are to be accepted by the faithful and adhered to "with a religious assent of soul". Although individual bishops do not have the prerogative of infallibility, they can proclaim doctrine infallibly when they teach united with their other bishops.
Paragraph 26 of Lumen Gentium, says something that is most important in understanding the bishop and his diocese. It says "This Church of Christ is truly present in all legitimate local congregations of the faithful which, united with their pastors, are themselves called churches in the New Testament." The bishop as unifier of the faith is especially seen in his role of celebrating the Eucharist in his diocese. His overall role is to see that the Word is preached and to see that the sacraments are celebrated. He regulates how these things are done but he is expected to lead by example as well, keeping in mind the model of the Good Shepherd. The power that bishops exercise in Christ’s name is said to be subject only to the universal power of the Roman Pontiff (the pope).
The pope is pastor of the whole Church and, says the document, has full, supreme, and universal power over the Church. His authority is anchored in Mt 16:18-19 and Jn 21:15ff. The power of binding and loosing is also given to the apostles joined with their head. The pope is said to exercise primacy (being first) and pre-eminence (being the most important) among the bishops. As the Orthodox Christians like to say: he is first among equals. The pope and bishops exercise their collegiate power in a solemn way in an ecumenical council, such as Vatican II. Papal infallibility is defined in the document as the pope "when as supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, he proclaims by a definitive act some doctrine of faith or morals"(#25). The scope of this teaching extends as far as divine revelation itself.
As far as jurisdiction (boundaries of power) goes, individual bishops have power only in their own diocese, whereas the pope has direct jurisdictional power in any diocese. (This is unlike the Archbishop of Canterbury who as leader of the Anglican community does not have any jurisdictional power in other dioceses. Neither does the Patriarch of Constantinople over any other patriarchate.)
Since Vatican II there have been many dialogues among Christian churches on the topic of authority and how it is to be exercised in Christian churches. The understanding of papal authority and papal infallibility has also been discussed. A great obstacle has been the abuse of papal authority in the past. Although no common understanding prevails many Christian churches have no objection in principle to the role of one leader, pastor, in a church whose role is to unit and preserve its followers in the faith.
But bishops are not able to do everything so there is further sharing of their ministry by priests and deacons who are the helpers of the bishops in carrying out their tasks. Not much is said about either of these two in the document as the emphasis is on bishops. Priests are said not to posses the highest degree of the priesthood yet are nevertheless united with their bishops in "sacerdotal dignity". They are cooperators with the episcopal order. They are consecrated to preach the gospel, shepherd the faithful and celebrate divine worship. In the eucharistic celebration they act in the person of Christ (as well as representing the congregation) in proclaiming His mystery of love and overseeing the celebration the other sacraments as well. Priests are also pastoral leaders and by their example and manner should show a truly priestly and pastoral ministry to their congregation, to other Christians and to the world.
Deacons are the next step down on the rung of hierarchy. They are ordained and are part of the clergy. They are not however ordained to the priesthood but "to the service of ministry." Today in the Catholic Church one has two kinds of deacons: those that are on their way to full ordination and secondly, those called permanent deacons (who may be married) who do not aspire to ordination to the priesthood. They serve the people in the ministry of the liturgy, of the word, and of charity. They can administer baptism, be ministers of the Eucharist, assist at and bless marriages, take Viaticum to the dying, read the scriptures, instruct people, preside at the worship and prayer of the faithful (but not preside at the Eucharist), administer sacramentals and officiate at funeral and burial services.
Although these are the levels of the hierarchy in the Catholic Church they have been modified over the centuries and will continue to evolve with time.
Introduction to Reading 5.1
A.Dulles, "Community of Disciples as a Model of Church", Philosophy and Theology, 1, no.2 (Winter 1986), 99-120.
Firstly we need to recall what the word "model" (encountered in Module 1) means in the context of theology (We came across the word in Module 1). Models are like metaphors or images used to explain how something complex works. One way to define the word is as follows: Models are relatively simple, artificially constructed cases which are found to be useful and illuminating for dealing with realities that are more complex. However, they do not tell the whole story.
Avery Dulles, an American theologian, developed five models of church in his book, Models of the Church, (1974). Since then he developed another model (1986) : the church as a community of disciples. This does not mean that there are only six models of church. He is simple saying here are six models that tell us a good deal about the church. There are hundreds of images of the church in the Bible. Two or three models have been particularly popular with believers this century: those of the church as sacrament, communion and servant.
Here in this article Dulles explains another model which also provides useful insights into what the church is like. If one remembers that the church is a multifaceted reality, that is, has many aspects or sides to its nature, it is easier to accept that there must be different ways of looking at the church.
Note the evaluation of the model by Dulles himself who can see positive and negative dimensions regarding the model.
Exercise 5.1
5.1.1 Why did Dulles write his book, Models of the Church?
5.1.2 What does Dulles say about a supermodel of the church?
5.1.3 Explain the sentence, "the disciples constituted a contrast society"?
5.1.4 Describe the relationship between discipleship and the sacramental life?
5.1.5 What are basic ecclesial communities?
5.1.6 Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of this model.
Introduction to Reading 5.2
Brendan Byrne, "Koinonia: Advantages and Possibilities of a New Testament Concept" Boundary Crossing : A Collection of Papers Presented to the Commission on Faith and Unity, (Sydney: NCCA, 1998), 5-9.
Brendan Byrne, S.J., teaches biblical studies at the Melbourne College of Divinity. This reading is focused specifically on the New Testament use of the word "koinonia". It is useful in gaining an understanding as to how the word is used at the origins of Christianity together with its positive aspects and limitations.
This reading comes from a booklet compiled by the National Council of Churches in Australia, which together with responses to the Canberra Statement, Gift and Calling, by various theologians from diverse Christian churches, promotes the deeper, critical understanding of koinonia.
Exercise 5.2
5.2.1 What did the word "koinonia" mean in the secular Greek milieu of the fist century A.D.?
5.2.2 Mention some the different meanings of the word in the Pauline letters.
5.2.3 Summarize in your own words three advantages of using this concept of church.
Introduction to Reading 5.3
World Council of Churches, The Unity of the Church as Koinô nia: Gift and Calling, The Canberra Statement, Boundary Crossing : A Collection of Papers Presented to the Commission on Faith and Unity, (Sydney: NCCA, 1998), 11-12.
The statement comes from the Seventh Assembly of the World Council of Churches which was held in Canberra in 1991. It is short but significant in many ways. It refers to the Christian church and comments on the journey of ecumenism by the churches. It also uses the model of the church as a communion or "koinonia". This has become the most popular model of seeing the church in this decade. The challenge of the statement is for the churches to move more intentionally towards the realization of the four marks or characterisitcs of the church, that is, that the church will be clearly seen as one, holy, catholic and apostolic (cf. Tavard’s article in 5.4 below).
Exercise 5.3
5.3.1 What is the purpose of the church as expressed in 1.1 and 1.2 of the Canberra Statement?
5.3.2 What frustration is expressed in the statement ?
5.3.3 How does the statement describe "koinonia"?
5.3.4 What is the statement’s attitude towards diversities?
5.3.5 In what contexts is the Holy Spirit referred to in the statement?
Introduction to Reading 5.4
George Tavard, "Conciliarity" The Church, Community of Salvation: An Ecumenical Ecclesiology, (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1992), 95-114.
George Tavard, a Catholic priest and theologian, is very much an ecumenist who has served on many ecumenical dialogues over the years. In this chapter he is looking for ways of expressing the characteristics of the church against the background of ecumenical dialogue as one might suspect given the subtitle of the book. These characteristics, that the church is "one, holy, catholic and apostolic", are known as the "marks" or "notes" of the church. Over the centuries Catholics and Protestant argued over the meaning of these words which originate from the Nicene Creed.
This is a chapter in a book. Although the chapter heading is "Conciliarity" one will notice that the core of the chapter deals with the marks or notes of the church. Note too that the word "catholic" is spelt with a lower case "c". The meaning of the word here is "universal" and "ecumenical" as Tavard explains. When it is spelt with an upper case "C" it refers to the Catholic Church.
Exercise 5.4
5.4.1 Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of the Eastern and Western
ways of identifying the church? (page 96 and 97 of the article).
5.3.2 Do Christians believe "the church" or "in the church"?
5.3.3 Explain how the oneness of the church is not univocal.
5.3.4 How can the church be holy if it consists of sinners?
5.3.5 Briefly explain how catholicity is "universal", "ecumenical" and "sobornuju"?.
5.3.6 Find a sentence which defines conciliarism.
5.3.7 State briefly what Hincmar, Luther and Newman understood by the
church being "apostolic".
5.3.8 How does Lumen Gentium understand apostolic succession?
Module 4 Return To Contents Page Module 6
